"Ancient Geopolymer in South American Monument Built in 600 AD." Joint research
program between the Geopolymer Institute and Universidad Católica San Pablo in
Arequipa, Peru. The title: "First results for Tiwanaku / Pumapunku, Bolivia."
This is a map of the Altiplano with Cusco, the Lake Titicaca and Tiahuanaco, Pumapunku.
We are at 3850 meters above sea level. We see at Tiwanaku
the famous gate of the Sun. I will not focus on it. I am focusing on the temple from Puma
Pumapunku, that is close by, and it is made of a group of megalithic slabs,
the largest in the American continent.
The chronology of the civilization in the Andes is a very young.
Tiahuanaco is a civilization that spans from ad 300 to 1000, but the monuments were built
between 600 and 700, and used until 900. We find the Nazcas, the Waris with Cusco,
and then later, 500 years later, came the Incas.
Built in 600, 1400 years ago, destroyed in 900, 500 years before the Inca Empire.
The gate of the Sun is made out of andesite volcanic rock and
the Pumapunku temple is made out of red sandstone, a sedimentary stone.
If you look from above with a satellite by Google Earth, we see the village
Tiahuanaco, this is the Spanish spelling and we have on the right
the site of Tiwanaku, and on the left crossing the road, the site of Pumapunku.
Looking at Pumapunku from above, we find the sandstone megaliths, number 1,
number 2, number 3, and number 4. They are 1, 2, 3, 4. When we enter the site,
this is what we see. We see no buildings, everything has fallen apart,
and they are only remains of stones laying on the ground.
And from above, we see the big megaliths and we discover that we will have
on this site, because of our study, the presence of two geopolymer methods:
geopolymer in alkaline medium for the red sandstone megaliths and geopolymer
in acidic medium for gray andesite structures. Method number 1, Pumapunku
red sandstone megaliths, we have the four big slabs, number 1, number 2, number 3,
number 4. Number 1 is weighing 130 tons. This is a monster. Number 2, 180 tons.
They are practically 7 to 8 meters wide in dimensions. Slab number 3 is broken
and parts are vanished. Slab number 4 is broken and
it has been weighing 150 tons. The blocks were broken very soon after construction
by an earthquake and repaired with a cramp socket filled with a metal,
which we suppose that it was copper. There was copper extraction, or bronze.
This is how the site was. This is the tentative reconstruction.
You see in red the 4 sandstone megaliths. This is a very small temple
on a big terrace, 4 steps, and we have, making this small temple,
the platform number 1, number 2, number 3 and number 4. In 1970,
the Bolivian government started a scientific study, to determine
the geological provenience of these giant sandstone blocks. We have the report,
in Spanish is titled: "Procedencia de las areniscas utilizadas en el templo
precolombino de Pumapunku". Provenience of the sandstone used in the
precolombian temple of Pumapunku Tiwanaku. They had selected 6 different
sandstone locations that are far away from Tiahanaco, from 8 kilometers
to 10, 11 kilometers. They selected one and claimed "this is the place
where the stones are coming". Sites Number 1 and Number 2 are close by,
and could also be chosen. In 2017, we took this information to start our
investigation and we added a third site, number 3, Kallamarka. Why? Because
there are archaeological records in Kallamarka, in the village of Kallamarka, which say
that the village was in activity at that time of the construction. So for me,
it was clear that human activities and a very well-defined village were related to
the stone material extraction. So this is what we see from Google Earth.
You have Pumapunku on the left, and you have on the level of the Altiplano
at 3820 meters, and then you have, on the south, the various hills
and mountains where we find sandstone sources. Number 1 Quebrada Kausani,
number 2, Cerro Amarillani, and number 3, Kallamarka.
The team went and visited all these sites. First, the Quebrada Kausani.
We had to climb up 300 meters from the plateau.
This is how it was in 1970 and now in 2017. We had to climb the mountain
in order to reach the site that had been selected by the Bolivian
archaeologists. Here we have a GPS tracking of our climbing up to the site.
We start 3850 meters and reach 4159 meters up.
This is the Quebrada Kausani we climbed up.
This is what the official archaeology is claiming. They used the steep llama
track for dragging their 150 tons megaliths down to the valley.
This is difficult to believe. When you arrive on the plateau,
you see quadratic sandstone blocks. You understand the reason why it has been chosen
as a site, but we don't find any massive blocks. We have small blocks.
American archaeologists are claiming that these are the remains of human quarrying activity.
Bolivian archaeologists are telling no. These are not.
We still have this today in 2017. In 1970, they wrote: "typical process of
disintegration by mechanical weathering (…) there were no actual sandstone quarries
used by the Tiwanacotas, such as an open pit, work or gallery,
but instead they went to blocks separated by diaclasis." This is
a geological natural weathering event. It happens that it is building quadratic blocks,
but that's all. The second site Cerro Amarilliani is easier to reach by car
and road. It is a similar geological formation. We have blocks.
The third site Kallamarka is totally different. It starts from the village of Kallamarka
and we will end up to the site that we consider being the real site.
Callamarca is the spelling in Spanish. Kallamarka
with "k" is the spelling in the local language. This is the road that goes to the village
of Kallamarka, and this is the entrance of this village.
This is something typical for this village. You don't find that elsewhere.
So it has an historical background. You enter the village, and it's astonishing cleaned
with bricks pavement, and so forth. Something happened in this village.
We continue our trip. We leave the village and continue to climb up
on the earth road, and we will arrive at the site that had been selected by our geologist.
We have weathered blocks, but more interesting, we will have particular feature
that is a layer of weathered sandstone kaolinitic clay, good for
geopolymer reaction in between the quadratic blocks.
And our geologist made this experimentation. "As you can see, you can take a very simple tool,
break them down, and you can see, this could be material to… and you cannot break the hard one.
Hard one, not the same sound. This is from this. And this, yes, very easy.
You can see what we find here. Even with our hands we can break it down.
It's very easy."
So, we could start our investigation. We took a sample from the monument,
from platform number 2. This is where the arrow is, and it is very close to
the place where the Bolivian archaeologists also took there sample that is labeled
number 9. So, we could compare with our investigation with what they had studied.
Scientific investigations: thin sections, optical microscope. X-rays diffraction,
SEM / EDS, scanning electron microscope. So we start with a thin section.
We will compare the grain size of the sandstone. Sandstone is made out of
quartz, feldspar, and very minute part of clays.
For the first source Quebrada Kausani, the one 4100 meters above sea level,
Amarillani, the second one, very easy to reach, the third one, Kallamarka and
our monument sample. We compare the dimension of the crystals of the quartz and
the feldspars. And it is obvious that the first one, Kausani is too fine.
It does not fit with the monument sample.
The second one, Amarillani, is too big. The grains are too big.
It also does not fit with the monument sample.
Kallamarka seems to fit with this monument sample and it should be the source
of the material. And if we look precisely at the Pumapunku sample of the monument,
then we have the various aggregate and "DSA" meaning
"disaggregated sandstone aggregate". This is sandstone aggregate
that should be coated with a very thin coating like the others, but it is a very
fluidal thick matrix that is not usual for sandstone. This support the idea
of artificial geopolymer sandstone. This is a very important quantity of binder.
We made the chemical compositions of the geological stone, and the monumental stones
on the EDS. So, we have, for Kausani, Amarillani, Kallamarka and Pumapunku, for sodium,
magnesium, aluminum, silicium, potassium, iron. We can say that for almost
all of the ingredient, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, iron,
they are on the same range. So it belongs to the same geological event.
This is how geologists are explaining it. However, if we compare
the sodium content, then we see that for the monument, we have twice the amount of sodium
in comparison to Kallamarka, three times or four times in comparison
with Amariallani, and practically two for Kausani. So if we accept the idea
that Kallamarka was the source for the material to make this megalithic stone,
then we have to find the sodium coming from elsewhere. And it has been added.
We have to look for the chemicals. Can we find the chemicals?
Or better, did they exploit the chemicals for the red sandstone megaliths?
We should have a sodium polysialate geopolymer in alkaline medium.
So we have to look for Natron. Sodium carbonate is extracted
from the Laguna Cachi, even in modern times. It is a small lake
that is located south of the great Salar de Uyuni, in the Altiplano. They had caravans
going back and forth, practically every day, from Tiwanaku to the south.
This civilization is well-known for their llamas caravans carrying everything.
The llamas caravan went from Tiwanaku down to San Pedro De Atacama.
We are at 3800 meters high and San Pedro De Atacama
is 750 kilometers away from Tiwanaku. We have archaeological traces record
showing that they have been llamas caravans going back and forth.
The track of the llamas caravan is coming to the Laguna Cachi, that is close to
south of Salar Uyuni. This is the Laguna Cachi from above and this is the Laguna Cachi
from the ground. The llamas caravan track is going through Laguna Cachi
and the modern road is also going through Laguna Cachi.
So we made the SEM scanning electron microscopy. We have under the feldspar grain,
this is "F", quartz grains is "Q". We find 'Alb" for albite, chlorite. But what we find is
a very special albite. It is called by geologists an "authigenic albite".
It is something that is formed after the consolidation of the stone, of the sandstone.
Imagine the sandstone. The sand settles on the bottom of the ocean
and starts to harden through compression and so forth. And after 1 or 2 million years,
water with alkaline in small amount are infiltrating the sandstone.
And it happens that because of the inclusions of the small amount
of alkali of sodium we get the formation, a crystallization of albite
that is sodium silicoaluminate. Si/Al=3. It is found geologically. Usually,
these are big crystals. Here we have a very thin uniform layer. It could be the result
of the crystallization of a polysialate geopolymer, Si/Al=3.
We have a higher concentration in the ingredient, the crystallization and the formation
of this authigenic albite could have happened during the 1400 years of a archaeological burial.
This is practically obvious. The problem is that we cannot make a difference,
so far today, between geological albite or geopolymer albite.
Analysis by EDS, silicon, aluminum, sodium, shows the ratio Si/Al=3, pure, a result of
self crystallization. If we look at another place under the electron microscope, then
we see other strange structures that are also authigenic. These structures
have been crystallizing during a long time, and for us during the time
after it was build. This is under the EDS spectrum. We get high amount
of silica, aluminum, sodium and iron. On the right, high amount of iron.
For us, this is a ferro-sialate geopolymer. The iron is taking place of the aluminum and
we have a ratio Si/Al,Fe=2.3. So, the first conclusion of the study is:
the thin section of a sample taken from the Pumapunku red sandstone
shows grain boundaries made of a thick fluidal red ferro-sialate matrix.
To our knowledge, this feature is very unusual in sandstone formed geologically.
It is a "unicum" and supports the idea of artificial sandstone geopolymer concrete.
Remember, these are the huge megaliths. It cannot be transported. So for us,
it is obvious that it is a type of a geopolymer concrete. The complementary SEM/EDS analysis
for sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, iron and
XRD suggest that the Kallamarka site is the source for Pumapunku megalithic blocks.
To make their geopolymer sandstone concrete, the builders may have transported
fully weathered kaolinitized sandstone, from the Kallamarka site.
They added foreign elements, Natron extracted from the Laguna Cachi,
a small lake located south of the great Salar De Uyuni in the Altiplano.
The megalithic slabs of between 130 and 180 tons made of ancient geopolymer
were cast 1400 years ago. We have blocks, concrete blocks.
We have concrete blocks, not small quadratic stones that they could have dragged down.
This is impossible to drag down but it is possible to make them. The result of
this study is under review in Materials Letters. I am waiting for the first reaction
of my colleagues. "Ancient Geopolymer in South American Monument. XRD, SEM
and Petrographic Evidence." These are the authors, and we hope it will be published
very soon. So we have Pumapunku, we have the sandstone terrasses 1400 years old,
but we also have small items. So remember, we found two different methods.
We discussed the first one, geopolymer and alkaline medium for
red sandstone megaliths. Now, we will discover geopolymer in acidic medium for
gray andesite volcanic structures.
The part two will be dedicated to the andesite. Acidic medium resulted of the reaction
with carboxylic acids and phosphate-based andesite geopolymer concrete.
This part of the Pumapunku temple was built 100 years later.
We have addition of architectural elements. These are structural elements that have been added.
These are more, from my point of view, sculptures that could have been added by another group.
They are made of andesite volcanic stones and they have puzzling features:
1 meter high, very very precise relief cuttings. How were such perfect cuts
made with simple stone tools? Perfect 90° angle cutting, very smooth.
This speaks for itself. How can you do it without tools?
Of course, they had hammerstones. They had stone tools. Do it!
More extravagant feature: this is this stone which contains 20 holes
drilled with precision, 30 centimeters deep inside this hard stone.
Even, archeometrics people who are claiming that this has been done by
an ancient civilization 30000 or 60000 years ago don't have the tool to replicate this.
Remember, Mohs hardness is 6 to 7, like quartz, and they have no tools.
So, I show you now, I read you a description by an expert.
The expert is Jean-Pierre Protzen from University of California in Berkeley and
he studied Cuzco architecture. And here, he is writing who taught the Inca stone masons
who worked 500 years later: "A Comparison of Tiwanaku and Inca
Cutting Stone Masonry." This had been published in 1997, in Journal of the
Society of Architectural Historians. I read: "to obtain the smooth finishes,
the perfectly planned faces, and exact right interior and exterior angles
on the finely dressed stones, they resorted (adopted) to techniques unknown to the Incas
and unknown to us at this time."
So, we have here an archeologist who says we don't know.
This is the first time that I am meeting an archaeologist claiming "I don't know".
"The sharp and precise 90° interior angles observed on various decorative motifs
most likely were not made with hammer stones. No matter how fine the hammer stone's point,
it could never produce the crisp right interior angles seen on
Tiwanaku / Pumapunku stonework. Comparable cuts in Inca masonry have all
rounded interior angles, typical of the pounding technique. The construction tools
of the Tiahuanacans, with perhaps the possible exception of hammer-stones,
remains essentially unknown and have yet to be discovered.
Remember, this is an expert. For us, from the geopolymer world, it is obvious that
this is the result of the wet sand geopolymer molding technique.
You have all the features of an item, an artifact that was obtained by pounding wet sand
in the mold. You have a very very very precise surface, very clean, very plain,
and in the surface, you see small bubbles semi-spherical air bubbles
that are against the mold. It is clear, no problem!
Where are the sources for this andesite volcanic stone. Remember, for sandstone,
for the megaliths, we relied on a petrographic study that was carried out
in 1970s, but we don't have the equivalent for the volcanic stone. Why?
You have here the map, Tiwanaku and, underneath,
the various sites where we studied the sandstone sources.
According to travelers, the source of the monuments should be the Cerro Khapia volcano.
But, it is located in Peru. You have accross the border and at that time, in 1970,
the Bolivian archaeologists could not, were not allowed to cross the border.
They did not make any analysis, petrographical analysis of the geological stone
and the Peruvians did not care about it. So, there is none.
We started our scientific investigation with what we had. We made thin sections,
we made essentially scanning electron microscope, and we got the possibility
of having good samples. Because on the site, you see a lot of debris that are not part
of the monuments and, by carefully choosing those debris, that are in fact
pieces of monumental stones with a characteristic very flat surface,
we were able to have our samples. This is the sample PP1. We took the sample PP2,
and this is where we took our sample PP5 on the surface of laying block.
The most important are the samples PP1 A and B.
We will broke some pieces for the SEM examination. You look at the perfect surface
of the sample. If we look under the optical microscope, this is what we see.
When I first look on the optical microscope, I was struck.
Nobody has looked with optical microscope on the surface of these unique artifacts.
This is strange! they are claiming it has been done by the aliens,
they are claiming and so and so. They are no tool marks, nothing. But they did not take
the time for looking just under the optical microscope. What you have here,
you see in white, these are the plagioclase crystals and, in between, we have holes,
holes, holes, that are in different colors. It is a surface that is very plane,
uniform, leveled, but full of holes. This is PP5, we have the white plagioclase
and in between holes that are 0.2 to 0.5 mm deep with clear walls.
And underneath, we see the crystals of the material. If we look on the cross section,
you see on the surface, and you see the holes up to 0.5 millimeter depth.
But, in another cross-section, we have holes inside. So, this is a material
that is typical for these artifacts. Looking at the thin section, it is beautiful
under the polarizing light, better than sandstone. You see in white
the minute plagioclase feldspar crystals.
Then here the big amphibole crystals. These are minerals. Pyroxene. And we have a lot
of black spots. These are amorphous substance.
Under the scanning electron microscope of the PP1 sample,
we just see the small crystals, this is a 5 micron scale. If we make the EDS analysis,
we find that it is feldspar, plagioclase. Now we continue our investigation.
To look at the surface is boring, it is more interesting to look at the holes.
What is underneath? We have our points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and then 6, 7.
I will focus on point number 4. Focus on point number 4 and a higher magnification.
So, we have black material, this is the hole surrounded with felspar crystals,
and in fact, it is made up of several different minerals.
If we compare this microscope picture view with the SEM view, this is exactly the same.
So you see that, on the left, we have the plagioclase, this is the white body.
"H" is for hornblende, this is a crystal. "P-A" is for pyroxene-augite crystal.
"Fe-Si" is for ferro silicate and in between the middle of that,
we have something that does not correspond to any classified mineral
from the optical microscope. We will focus on it. We will get a great surprise.
We get the surprise of having a totally amorphous element
that looks like rubber, gummy, anything.
We performed EDS. We got high amount of carbon. We got nitrogen, we cannot measure
quantitatively nitrogen. But qualitatively, we can see that we have nitrogen.
So it could be ammonium organic matter. So we are finding an organic matter
in a volcanic rock, which is against nature. So it is man-made.
One could argue that, since this is a point that was on the surface,
what we had been measuring, was the result of surface pollution.
Then, in order to cope with this argument, we went inside.
You see the sample tray that supports the sample.
And we went inside and had several spots. Spot number 1.
The feldspar surrounds the black system. We have, on the top of the black surface, a crystal element.
We have"A" and "C" analyzed. It is plagioclase. Then we analyzed spot "B"
that is underneath. This is organic. So we have feldspar plagioclase
on the top of an organic matter. This is inside the stone. Another point.
We have a very smooth surface that this could be the surface of a binder.
And we have the dark spot. So we focus on the dark spot. Organic, carbon nitrogen.
Spot number 3. We have the same atoms of carbon, nitrogen and other elements.
Everybody will agree with the fact that this organic matter suggests the presence
of an artificial stone. So, first conclusions: which chemistry? It is not
polysialate-based geopolymer like for the red sandstone megaliths. It is not the
alkaline medium. If it is not alkaline medium, then it is acidic medium. And yes,
this is acidic medium if we rely on the ancient legends that archaeology doesn't take
into account: "(…) una sustancia de origen vegetal capaz de ablandar las piedras".
Plant extract capable of softening stones. This is what the local South American
are telling and reading. "Crazy, they can soften stones?!" 42 years ago,
I met a Peruvian anthropologist and we decided to make our first presentation paper
at an archaeometrical conference in New York. So we had a second in 1982,
that reads: "Fabrication of Stone Objects by Geopolymeric
Synthesis in the Pre-Incan Huanka Civilization in Peru".
It is now agreed that the Tiwanaku civilization is modeled on the pre-incan
Huanka civilization revealed by an extraordinary skill in fabricating
objects in stones. A recent ethnological discovery shows
that some witch doctors in the Huanka tradition, use no tools to make
their little stone objects, but still use a chemical dissolution of the stone
material by plant extracts, carboxylic acids. One year later, I made a scientific study
with the laboratory of pharmacognosy in Grenoble: "The Disaggregation of
Stone Materials with Organic Acids from Plant Extracts, an Ancient and Universal
Technique." So, we studied: What type of acid do we get from plants?
And the conclusion was: the pre-columbian farmers were quite capable of producing
large quantities of acid from such common plants in their region as: fruits,
potatoes, maize, rhubarb, rumex, agave Americana (this is the cactus), ficus indica,
oxalis pubescens. We know that there are more now. So we will have carboxylic acids,
acetic acid, oxalic acid, citric acid. This works perfectly with limestone.
Limestone is disaggregated by this organic acid. No problem! Very easy to prove.
Any stone that contains limestone will be disaggregated but not volcanic andesite.
It doesn't work. If it is the chemistry used, it is only to fabricate a binder
that will agglomerate non-consolidated stone material.
Then it is okay! So, clear-cut between limestone and volcanic.
Do we have archaeological hints suggesting that this idea is not crazy?
Archeological evidence on extensive culture of maize for possible manufacture
of vinegar (acetic acid)? Another expert, specialist of the region, this is an
American (the experts are all American archaeologists, each one is specialized in
one site). Paul Goldstein, Department of Anthropology, University of California.
"From Stew-Eaters to Maize-Drinkers the Chicha Economy and Tiwanaku".
The Chicha is a very well-known local beverage. Sometimes it contains more or less alcohol,
but this is essentially produced from maize. So it is some alcohol beverage
that can be used for their ceremonial activities.
Moquegua Valley, southern Peru. This is located between the Pacific Ocean and
the Tiwanaku site. "(…) Ceramic assemblages changed entirely with the arrival of
Tiwanaku colonial settlement after 600 A.D., that is when they started to build
the monuments, and the establishment of large enclaves at previously unoccupied locations
in the valley." So the people from the top made enclavements in the valley,
at very precise places. "The Chicha economy and Tiwanaku. (…) Each community
also included at least one household complex with numerous storage Tinajas,
and in-situ features installations of Chicha brewing vessels set into the floor."
These are big vessels. "In association with large grinding stones, called Manos,
and a profusion of stone hoes." I continue.
"This evidence suggests that maize was stored and processed beyond the demands
of the household, and exported to exchange partners in the Highland Tiwanaku core.
(…) Nonetheless, it is yet unclear whether this exaggerated maize
production indicates a centralized state tribute system. (…) One household, for example,
had a production capacity of 513 liters, a supply estimated to have been sufficient
for 171 people." So, for me it is an industry. "The implication
that ordinary households in Andean States (…) might produce and serve Chicha
in quantities so far above household needs could help to explain three of the most
puzzling aspects of the Tiwanaku phenomenon." But they don't think of our system,
they were thinking of their traditional way of using Chicha.
For us, this exaggerated production was not for beverages
but for stone making. Several people tried to discover the secret
of this stone making. For example, you can read in the internet things
that have been done, published in 1960s. "For 14 years (that is before 1960s),
Father Lira studied the legend of the ancient Andes and finally managed to identify
the Jotcha shrub as the plant that, after being mixed and treated with other vegetables
and substances, was able to turn the stone into mud. The ancient indians
dominated the technique of massification," says Father Lira in one of these articles
(so this is the translation in english of an article written in spanish),
"softening the stone that they reduced to a soft mass that they could mold with ease."
"The priest performed several experiments with the Jotcha shrub and he managed to get
a solid rock to soften almost to liquify." It does not say that it has been limestone
but it must have been limestone. "However, he failed to harden it again".
So he failed to harden it again. "So he considered his experiment a failure."
This has been the reason why, 40 years ago, we also stopped. We can disaggregate,
but we were not able to re-agglomerate, harden it again.
I waited to get the right knowledge. This knowledge we started to obtain only 1 or 2 years ago.
Research target: we have disaggregated, we have to find the hardener.
How to reconstitute? And the basic chemistry is developed in my book
chapter 13: Phosphate-based geopolymers, chapter 14: Organic-mineral geopolymers.
Research target: finding the hardener. Where can we find, locally, the chemicals
that will generate this reaction?
For sandstone we found the Natron for the big megaliths. For the volcanic
andesite stones, we have an organic binder, acidic medium, and we are looking for
the hardener. I came to the crazy idea because, because… of
all the information that I have no time to disclose here, that it should be the Guano
that has been extracted from Ilo on the pacific ocean. The Guano that you find,
that is commonly used as a fertilizer, and, that was transported by
llama caravans to the highlands.
The guano is an excellent fertilizer but it is not the reason why they transported it
to the highlands. The Tiwanaku civilization was created
before they exploited guano. At Tiwanaku, they had developed a very special agriculture.
They did not need this type of fertilizer. They have their own fertilizer on the top.
So, to claim that the guano had been sent to the highlands
because they needed it as a fertilizer for the agriculture is nonsense.
This civilization was developed by itself.
Research target: finding the hardener! This is the analysis that was carried out
150 years ago on specimens of peruvian guano. So we find the uric acid, oxalate
of ammonia, muriate (this is chlorine, ammonium chloride), organic matter,
phosphate of lime, calcium phosphate, with some phosphate of magnesium, calcium
oxalates, oxalate of lime and water. And if we add some of the carboxylic acid
that we have been manufacturing either from maize or other plants, the ammonium
oxalate will be transformed into oxalic acid, phosphoric acid will be transformed
from phosphate and calcium. Calcium phosphate with acetic acid
produces phosphoric acid. Ammonium oxalate with acetic acid
produces oxalic acid. So we have our acids that will start the chemical reaction.
Do we have some archaeological records on these caravans and trade
between the guano of Ilo and Tiwanaku, going up from the sea level to 3800 meters high?
Well, there is here a text on guano caravans between Ilo, Moquegua
and the Aliplano. This has been published in the Archaeological Studies in Leiden
University in the Netherlands in 2005 by Willy Minkes. And I read: "el descanso."
This is near Ilo. "El Descanso means the 'resting place' in Spanish.
This name has been transmitted orally and refers to the traditional use of the site and
resting place for the llama caravans on their way to or from the highlands via Moquegua.
This trade [guano] appears to have been intensified during the Tiwanaku phase [Moquegua],
possibly stimulated by the need for more guano.
(…) Early colonial documents state that llama caravans carried this trade item.
The coastal [Ilo] population received coca, camelid wool, dried meat as well as
llamas as for guano transportation in exchange." We visited "Ilo", the Punta Colles guano site.
This is a natural reserve. We have the birds making their guano.
And we took a sample of the guano.
Under the optical microscope, this is what it looks like. This is 1 millimeter scale.
Under the electronic microscope and the analysis, this is what it looks like.
Carbon, nitrogen and the rest. So we have the organic matter
in volcanic andesite stone. Does it contain guano? Or remains of guano?
Or guano that has not reacted? We compare the EDS spectrum from the Pumapunku Monument.
We have the carbon, nitrogen, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon,
phosphore, sulfure, chlorine potassium and calcium.
Can you imagine chlorine there? This was in the monument. This is the guano: carbon,
nitrogen, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, phosphate, sulfate, chlorine,
potassium, calcium, and iron. We have the same components, but, in the stone, it is diluted.
Which is obvious but it is the same chemistry. Conclusions: The SEM study
of a sample taken from the Pumapunku gray andesite monument shows
the presence of organic matter (it could be the binder?).
We have carbon, nitrogen, and the like. This feature is very unusual in a volcanic stone.
It is a "unicum" and supports the idea of artificial andesite geopolymer concrete.
To make the geopolymer andesite concrete, the builders may have transported
non-consolidated volcanic tuff (sand size) from the Cerro Khapia site.
They used an acid-based geopolymer technology involving carboxylic acids
manufactured from local biomass, which reacted with a hardener based on guano
transported by llama caravans from the Ilo coastal area to Tiwanaku.
The andesite architectural elements of finely sculptured patterns
are made of ancient geopolymer cast 1300 years ago. To sum up,
we have the red sandstone megaliths, this is an alkaline geopolymer,
1400 years of age, and we have the gray andesite structures,
acidic geopolymer, 1300 years of age, relying on the old legends
with plants extract capable of softening stones. What's next? The Gate of the Sun
is andesitic, dating to the same period. Is it ancient geopolymer? What about
the Cuzco walls, 450 kilometers up north, are they of the same material?
Is it andesitic or is it limestone? We see that they are both.
Are they using the same method? We don't know.
We have not studied it. but these are only questions. What's next?
No modern analysis for the presumed geological sources at Cerro Khapia volcano.
There are several types of andesitic material,
so there should be several types of sources that we have to study.
These studies should be carried out with our Peruvian geologists.
The team on the site. Our geologist Luis Huaman from Arequipa and Ralph from the Geopolymer
Institute. This has been my talk: "Ancient Geopolymer in South American Monuments".
This is the replica that we made in the lab. Here with a formula using modern chemicals.
It works. There is no problem! It this is the white replica of a red sandstone block.
This is the white replica of a volcanic andesite block
with the same chemicals, but different minerals as fillers.
So, this is the last slide. I've been personally astonished
about what we discovered. I think it is important,
it is the beginning of a very complicated detailed research. But this is the bottom line
that you have to follow and I'm asking our South American friends that
to raise the question: "Aha! Why not in Colombia? Why not in Mexico?
Why not in Peru? And so forth. How to start studies
by introducing the knowledge of geopolymeric reactions?
Thank you for your attention.