The Journal on Geopolymer Science Applied to Archaeology is a FREE Open Access journal but with a real editorial board and real peer-review process. All papers will be published on the Geopolymer Institute Website and on Research Gate with the appropriate DOI for indexing.

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Editor-in-Chief: Dr. Frédéric DAVIDOVITS
Founding Editor: Pr. Joseph DAVIDOVITS

The Journal on Geopolymer Science Applied to Archaeology is dedicated to publishing state-of-the art reports of broad interest to the geopolymer and archaeological communities. The journal provides a forum for materials scientists and engineers, physicists, and chemists to communicate in the field of geopolymer technologies and materials used in ancient times.

. This book
• Brings new insights on the study of well-known Archaeological sites
• Examines the use of Geopolymers
• Solves open problems in the analysis of Tiwanaku and Easter Island

The book presents the study (with recent updates) on Ancient Geopolymers in South America and Easter Island regions, exploring the artificial nature of the volcanic rocks used in the construction of Easter Island’s statues. Contrary to the belief that the statues were carved and transported, Davidovits suggests they were made on-site using geopolymer technology. He proposes that this knowledge came from Amerindians from the Andes, specifically the Tiahuanaco region near Lake Titicaca. The book is divided into two parts: the first examines geopolymeric artificial stone technologies in the Andes, and the second establishes a connection between these technologies and Easter Island, 3,700 km away. Davidovits’ research includes geological expeditions, SEM analysis, petrography, and a comprehensive review of international literature. It is intriguing to observe that in both cases, Pumapunku /Tiwanaku in the Andes and Easter Island, volcanic rocks are involved which contain biological carbon. These discoveries undeniably support the theory of geopolymeric artificial manufacturing, challenging traditional archaeological views.

By Thomas A. Gara, Schongauer Institute, Munich (Germany)
Prof. Joseph Davidovits, Geopolymer Institute (France).
Frédéric Davidovits, Ph. D., Geopolymer Institute (France).

https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36569.75366/1

Abstract:

The studies carried out in 2015-2018 on the monumental stones constituting the Pumapunku site in Bolivia (South America) provide evidence that the stones are ancient artificial geopolymers. The two types of lithics under consideration are large platforms and ‘sculptures’ exhibiting characteristics that would have been extremely difficult, if not impossible, to achieve with the tools thought to be available to the Tiahuanacans’ of 1500-2000 years ago. For examples, big lithics exhibit perforations of unique characteristics. These holes, believed to be boreholes, are found in andesite artifacts. In number, they approach 900 perforations. The holes/perforations of 3 or 4 mm diameter could have been created with wooden dowels forced into the plastic geopolymer, as well as reed or copper tubes forced into the material in the same way cookie cutters remove the cookie from the dough. The paper also discusses other geopolymer lithics.

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By Prof. Joseph Davidovits, Geopolymer Institute (France).
Frédéric Davidovits, Ph. D., Geopolymer Institute (France).

https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.10021.93929/2

Abstract:

The studies carried out in 2017-2018 on the monumental stones constituting the Pumapunku site in Bolivia (South America) provided evidence that the stones are ancient artificial geopolymers (Parts I to III). To make geopolymer andesite stone, around AD 600 to AD 700, the builders could have transported an andesite stony material having the consistence of sand from the Cerro Khapia volcano site, and added an organo-mineral geopolymer binder manufactured with local biomass ingredients. They did not use the many quadrangular volcanic blocks, the famous “piedras cansadas”, the tired stones, which are still lying on both sides of the lake Titicaca. The present paper describes how the builders of Pumapunku / Tiwanaku exploited a natural volcanic andesite sand from the volcano Cerro Khapia, transported and stored it at the shore village of Iwawe, Stratum (V) in the excavation by Isbell & Burkholder, (2002). For the making of their andesite geopolymer monuments, they did not need to crush andesite rock. This andesite sand is similar to one of the pozzolana sands found in the best ancient Roman mortars and coined in Latin “carbunculus”, 2000 years ago.

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By Frédéric Davidovits, Ph. D., Geopolymer Institute (France).

https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26618.72644

Abstract:

To determine the nature of the Carbunculus, we used an unexpected discovery from the GEOCISTEM program. During a meeting in Cagliari (Sardinia) in September 1996, we were able, together with the geologists, to visit the volcanic tuff quarry of Paringianu, exploited to extract ashlar. The local volcanic context is constituted by ignimbrites and rhyolites. The tuff is very indurated, i.e. it is solid. It is composed of plagioclase, potassium feldspar, pyroxene, a vitreous matrix and montmorillonite. It was sampled for analysis. During the visit, we saw a curiosity for the specialists of volcanic materials: while some tens of meters away, hard tuff was extracted, geologists showed us an unexploited area of the quarry. And with good reason: the stone had the same composition as the well indurated rock and it contained crystals of the same dimensions, but it disintegrated into sand, when we passed the nail or the finger over it. They explained to us that during the cooling of the volcanic layer, which must be done slowly for the rock to harden, a sudden degassing in this layer of tuff left columns through which the gases escaped: the stone did not have time to have a good cementing when it cooled. This showed the degree of cohesion between the two types of stone: one cooled slowly to acquire some consistency, while the degassing made the other a soft and not very indurated rock (Carbunculus). According to the geologists who accompanied us to the site, the difference in induration between two rocks of similar composition is a common phenomenon. By observing the degassing columns, we could see that they were vertical and that they created a small system of veins which vertically crossed the entire tuff layer from the bottom to the circulation floor. This was approximately one man’s height, and these ducts were a few centimeters wide. This phenomenon is known as “gas pipe”.

Résumé:

Pour déterminer la nature du Carbunculus, il faut se servir d’une découverte inattendue du programme GEOCISTEM. Durant une réunion à Cagliari (Sardaigne) en septembre 1996, nous avons pu, avec les géologues, visiter la carrière de tuf volcanique de Paringianu, exploitée pour en extraire de la pierre de taille. Le contexte volcanique local est constitué d’ignimbrites et de rhyolites. Le tuf est très induré, c’est-à-dire qu’il est solide. Il se compose de plagioclase, de feldspath potassique, de pyroxène, d’une matrice vitreuse et de montmorillonite. Il fut échantillonné à des fins d’analyse. Durant la visite, nous avons vu une curiosité pour les spécialistes des matériaux volcaniques: alors qu’à quelques dizaines de mètres, on extrayait du tuf dur, les géologues nous montrèrent un endroit inexploité de la carrière. Et pour cause : la pierre avait la même composition que la roche bien indurée et elle contenait des cristaux de dimensions identiques, mais elle se délitait en sable, quand on y passait l’ongle ou le doigt. Ils nous expliquèrent qu’au cours du refroidissement de la couche volcanique, qui doit se faire lentement pour que la roche durcisse, un brusque dégazage dans cette couche de tuf laissa des colonnes par lesquelles les gaz s’échappèrent : la pierre n’a pas eu le temps d’avoir une bonne cimentation en se refroidissant. Cela montrait le degré de cohésion entre les deux types de pierres : l’une l’une s’est refroidie doucement pour acquérir une certaine cohérence, tandis que le dégazage faisait de l’autre une roche tendre et peu indurée (Carbunculus). D’après les géologues qui nous accompagnaient sur le site, la différence d’induration entre deux roches de composition semblable est un phénomène courant. En observant les colonnes de dégazage, on pouvait voir qu’elles étaient verticales et qu’elles créaient un petit système de veines lesquelles traversaient verticalement toute la couche de tuf depuis le bas jusqu’au sol de circulation. Celle-ci faisait approximativement une hauteur d’homme, et ces conduits étaient larges de quelques centimètres. Ce phénomène est connu sous le nom de « gaz pipe ».

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By Guy Demortier, Emeritus professor of physics, University of Namur (Belgium).

https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.33958.75844

Abstract:

Concentrations of light elements using micro-PIXE and micro-PIGE reveal the elemental composition of the various materials used for the construction of the pyramids. Light elements (mainly Na, Cl and S) show a very heterogeneous distribution for the pyramid’s material in contrast with the extremely homogeneous distribution of these elements in natural limestone from quarries of Turah and Maadi and the bedrock of Saqqarah. The micro-PIXE elemental maps present new evidence for the application of a molding procedure.

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